The History of the Condition of Women: Europe
But Men Must Work and Women Must Weep, 1883 by Walter Langley
BY
MRS. D. L. CHILD
An excerpt from
THE HISTORY OF THE CONDITION OF WOMEN, IN VARIOUS AGES AND NATIONS
1840
Penelope at her loom.
Plutarch speaks with disapprobation of the Persian manner of treating women; yet the Greeks themselves kept them under very strict discipline. They had distinct apartments, in the highest and most retired part of the house, and among the wealthier classes these rooms were often kept locked and guarded. Women belonging to the royal families were not even allowed to go from one part of the house to the other without permission. When Antigone, in Euripides, obtains her mother’s permission to go on the house-top to view the Argian army, her aged guardian insists upon first searching the passage, lest the profane eyes of a citizen should dishonor her by a glance.
Young girls were more rigorously secluded than married women; yet it was considered highly indecorous for the latter to be seen beyond the door-step, until they were old enough to assume the character of matrons. Menander says:
“You go beyond the married woman’s bounds,
And stand before the hall, which is not fit;
The laws do not permit a free-born bride
Farther than to the outer door to go.”
Maidens were rarely allowed to appear in the presence of men; and never without veils. This covering was probably made of transparent stuff; for Iphigenia speaks of seeing her brother through “the veil’s fine texture.”
Eustathius says, “Women should keep within doors, and there talk.” Thucydides declared that “she was the best woman of whom the least was said, either of good or harm;” according to the Greek proverb it was considered extremely dishonorable to be governed by a female; and Plato rejoiced that he was not born a woman.
In order to prevent assignations, Solon enacted that no wife, or matron, should go from home with more than three garments, or a basket longer than one cubit, or more food than could be purchased for an obolus;[1] or travel in the night-time without a lighted torch carried before her chariot. Lest pride should seek to exhibit itself in a pompous retinue, he ordered that no woman should appear attended by more than one servant, except when she was drunk! On the death of a husband, the oldest son became the guardian of his mother. A woman was incapable of appearing in court without her guardian; therefore the words of the proclamation always were, “We cite —— and her guardian.” No property could be disposed of, either by will or otherwise, without the consent of guardians. Female captives taken in war were not usually treated with any degree of respect or tenderness: thus we find Hecuba complaining that she was chained, like a dog, at the gate of Agamemnon. Alexander the Great formed an honorable exception to this rule, and in his treatment of the royal Persian prisoners imitated the noble example of Cyrus.
Women were not allowed to attend the Olympic games; but this prohibition could not have existed at all periods; for we are told that Cynisca, daughter of Archidamus, king of Sparta, was the first woman who won the prize in the chariot-race at Olympia. Perhaps the Spartan women alone partook of these masculine diversions; those of more feminine habits would probably perceive the propriety of not attending games, where the combatants wrestled without clothing. In commemoration of her victory, Cynisca sent a chariot and four brazen horses, to be dedicated to Olympian Jupiter.
In the earliest ages, Greek women had a right to vote in the public assemblies; but this privilege was taken away from them. They were never allowed to be present at banquets, and it is not supposed that they ever ate in the same apartment with the men.
The restraint of female influence being thus removed, it may be presumed that the outward forms of decency were less scrupulously observed than they would have been under a different system. A fine of one thousand drachmas was imposed upon every woman who appeared in public without clothing; and the necessity of making such a law does not speak well for purity of manners.
That women were not always entirely passive and subservient, appears by the example of Xantippe, so famous for her household eloquence; and by the dispute between Agamemnon and his wife, concerning his wish that she should absent herself from the wedding of her daughter Iphigenia:
Agamemnon. “Without more reasonings, my demands obey!”
Clytemnestra. “By Juno, that o’er Argos bears the sway,
Sooner would wretched Clytemnestra bleed,
Than give consent to so unjust a deed.
Affairs abroad better thy lot become;
’Tis fit that I should manage things at home.”
Themistocles used to say, “My little boy rules Athens; for he governs his mother, and his mother governs me.”
The women of Lemnos, finding themselves slighted for the sake of certain Thracian captives, whose charms conquered their conquerors, resolved upon indiscriminate revenge. They unanimously agreed to put all their male relations to death; and this barbarous plan was carried into execution, with the solitary exception of Hypsipyle, the queen, who spared the life of her father. In consequence of this, the women conspired against her, and soon after drove her from the kingdom.
The most common employments of Grecian women were spinning, weaving, embroidery, making garments, and attending to household avocations. Their embroidery often represented battle-scenes and historical events, which must have required a great deal of time and patience. During the early ages, there seems to have been no difference whatever between the occupations of princesses and women of common rank. Before marriage, Penelope tended her father’s flocks on the mountains of Arcadia; and when she was queen of Ithaca, her son bids her attend to the spindle and the loom, and leave the affairs of the palace to his direction. During the absence of her husband, she was troubled with numerous powerful suitors, whose enmity was greatly to be feared in those turbulent times. She promised to choose one from among them, when she had finished weaving a certain web; but she continually baffled them, by unravelling in the night what she had woven in the day: hence “Penelope’s web” became a proverbial expression for works that were never likely to be finished. We are told that Nausicaa,daughter of king Alcinous, who met Ulysses shipwrecked on her father’s coast, went down to the shore, accompanied by her maidens, to wash clothes; and princess as she was, she carried her dinner with her.
Women grinding corn, after the manner of the Israelites, are alluded to by old Greek authors; and that they were in the habit of spinning with a distaff as they walked, is to be inferred from the fact that it was considered a bad omen to meet a woman working at her spindle.
As luxury increased, the lines of demarkation between different ranks no doubt became more obvious, and laborious occupations were relinquished by the wealthy. It is likewise probable that restraints became less and less rigid. Women, in later times, certainly joined the men in entertainments at Aspasia’s house, and the remains of an ancient picture leads to the conjecture that at some period they attended the theatres. It is recorded that certain women disguised themselves in male attire, and went to Academus to listen to the philosophy of Plato; and when this desire for knowledge began to prevail, it could not be long before it manifested itself in casting off the fetters prescribed by custom. Individuals there were, as there ever will be, of both sexes, who were in advance of the people among whom they lived. Beside the far-famed Sappho and Aspasia, there was Corinna, the Theban poetess, who is said to have five times carried the prize from Pindar; and there was Arete, daughter of Aristippus, who taught philosophy and the sciences to her son: from this circumstance the young man was called Metrodidactos, i. e. Taught-by-his-mother.
Increasing luxury evidently did not produce universal corruption; for the wife of Phocion was a model of prudence, simplicity, and domestic virtue. When one of the actors, who was to represent a queen, demanded a more pompous retinue, Melanthius, who was at the charge of the exhibition, said: “Phocion’s wife appears in public with a single maid-servant; and dost thou come here to show thy pride, and corrupt our women?” The audience received this remark with a thunder of applause. This same modest matron, when a lady exhibited many jewels in her presence, replied: “Phocion is my greatest ornament, who is now called for the twentieth time to command the armies of Athens.” Plutarch, who lived as late as the time of Trajan, bears testimony that his wife Timoxena was far above the frivolity and affectation, which characterized many of her sex; that she cared little for dress or parade; and was chiefly desirous to perform all the duties, and observe all the proprieties of life.
Of the amusements of the Grecian women we know little. Religious festivals no doubt constituted a large portion of their recreations. Many dances were used on these occasions; among which was the Caryatides, a Spartan dance, in honor of Diana. Theseus, who invented a circular dance called the Crane, is said to have been the first who introduced the custom of men and women dancing together. Various musical instruments were in use, such as the harp and the cythara, and women doubtless played upon these, as well as joined in the songs appropriated to various festivals. Female characters at the theatre were performed entirely by men in disguise.
Ladies of rank were at all periods accompanied by attendants; and among them was generally some old nurse, or matron, continually about their persons. Two such are described as waiting upon Penelope, beside a numerous band of maidens, whom she guided in the labors of the distaff and the loom.
The Grecian dress consisted of sandals for the feet, and an ample flowing robe, without sleeves, fastened at the waist by a girdle. The wealthy wore purple, and other rich colors; the common class usually wore white, for the economy of having it dyed when it became soiled. Jewels, expensive embroidery, and delicious perfumes, were used in great profusion by those who could afford them. It is supposed that women stained their eyebrows black, and stained the tips of their fingers rose-color, after the manner of the East. They took great pains to keep their teeth in perfection, and some affirm that they painted their lips with vermillion.
According to Socrates, the most costly female wardrobe in his time might be valued at about fifty minæ, or one hundred and sixty pounds, nine shillings, and two pence.
Until the time of Cecrops, the Grecians lived without the institution of marriage; but his laws on that subject, being found conducive to the public good, soon became generally observed. He expressly forbade polygamy; but at certain periods, when great numbers of men had been slain in battle, temporary laws were passed allowing men to take more than one wife. Euripides is said to have imbibed a dislike to the whole sex by having two wives at once, who made his house a perpetual scene of dissension. It was allowable for a man to marry his sister by the father’s side, but not by the mother’s. Cimon married his sister Elpinice, because his father’s misfortunes had left him too poor to provide a suitable match for her; but afterward, when Callias, a rich Athenian, became in love with Elpinice, and offered to pay all her father’s fines, if she would consent to be his wife, Cimon divorced her, and gave her to him.
Parents negotiated matches for their children; and neither young men nor maidens presumed to marry without the consent of both father and mother.
In Athens, heiresses were compelled by law to marry their nearest kinsmen, in order to preserve the fortune in the family; but if he chanced to be old and superannuated, a younger relative was admitted into the household, and in all respects considered the lady’s husband, except in having a legal claim to her inheritance.
When a female orphan was left without adequate support, the nearest relative was obliged to marry her, or settle a portion upon her according to his wealth and rank. When the connections were numerous, they often combined together to contribute the required sum.
Any foreigner who married an Athenian woman was liable to be sold, together with his estate, and a third part given to the accuser. Any foreign woman, who married a citizen of Athens, was liable to be sold for a slave, and the man was likewise fined a thousand drachmas. These laws fell into disuse; but were revived by Pericles for a short period, during which five thousand Athenian citizens were sold on account of foreign alliances.
It was common for Grecian lovers to deck the doors of their beloved with garlands, and pour libations of wine near the threshold, because this was the manner in which Cupid was worshipped at his temple. They likewise inscribed her name on trees, on the walls of their houses, and on the books they used. These inscriptions were generally accompanied by some flattering epithet. In allusion to this custom, one of the characters in Euripides says he never should have a good opinion of women, though all the pines in mount Ida were filled with their names. When a person’s garland was untied, it was taken as a sign of his being in love; and when women were seen weaving wreaths, they were accused of being love-sick.
Various magical arts and spells were in use to discover the state of each other’s affections. The Thessalian women were famous for their skill in these matters; and the Grecian maidens were in the habit of applying to them for assistance; thus one in Theocritus says:
“To Agrio too I made the same demand,
A cunning woman she, I crossed her hand;
She turned the sieve and shears, and told me true,
That I should love, but not be loved by you.”
Many charms and philtres were likewise in use to procure affection, when their love was unsuccessful. These charms were sometimes compounded with blood of doves, the bones of snakes and toads, screech-owl’s feathers, bands of wool twisted upon a wheel, and if possible from the neck of one who had hanged himself. Sometimes pills, roots, and powerful herbs, were the chosen ingredients; and instances occurred wherein the unfortunate victims of superstition lost their reason by the administration of these dangerous philtres. Images of wax were sometimes made and placed before the fire to melt, while certain spells were pronounced; this was done from the idea that there was some mysterious sympathy between the wax and the heart of the beloved object. Sometimes one who was forsaken and indignant made an image of clay and placed it beside the wax, that while one melted the other might harden; they believed that the heart of the rejected thus became stern and unrelenting, while the faithless lover was softened by affection. Other enchantments, too various to mention, were used by those who wished to effect similar purposes.
Particular regard was paid to lucky seasons and omens for the wedding day. The full of the moon was considered a favorable time, and the conjunction of the sun and moon was peculiarly auspicious. The sixteenth day of the month was regarded as more unlucky than any other. It was supposed that trees planted on that day would wither and die, and that girls who were either born or married at such a date were destined to misery; but for a boy it was considered a lucky augury to be born on the sixteenth.
Before marriage, the Grecian maidens offered baskets of fruit to Diana, and many other ceremonies were performed in her temple. On account of her own aversion to wedlock, it was deemed peculiarly desirable to appease her indignation, and propitiate her favor. Sacrifices were likewise offered to Juno, Minerva, Venus, the Fates, and the Graces. When the victim was opened, the gall was taken out, and thrown behind the altar, as a symbol that all anger and malice must be cast aside. The entrails were carefully examined by soothsayers, and if any unlucky omen presented itself, the contract was dissolved, as displeasing to the gods. The most fortunate omen that could appear was a pair of turtles, because those birds are remarkable for constant affection to each other; if one appeared alone, it was thought to prognosticate separation and sorrow to the young couple.
In many places the bride was required to cut off some of her ringlets and offer them to the gods of marriage, at the same time pouring libations on their altars.
Both bride and bridegroom wore bright colored garments, and were adorned with garlands, composed of flowers sacred to Venus, and other deities supposed to preside over nuptials. The house where the wedding was celebrated was likewise decked with garlands.
The Bœotians used wreaths of wild asparagus, which is full of thorns, but bears excellent fruit; it was therefore thought to resemble ladies, who give their lovers some trouble in gaining their hearts, but whose affection is a sweet reward. The bride carried an earthen vessel full of parched barley, and was accompanied by a maid bearing a sieve, to signify her obligation to attend to domestic concerns; a pestle was likewise tied to the door, for the same purpose. The bride was usually conveyed in a chariot from her father’s house to her husband’s in the evening. She sat in the middle, with the bridegroom on one side, and one of her most intimate female friends on the other. A widower was not allowed to attend his bride, but sent one of his friends for that purpose. Blazing torches were carried before the young couple, and music followed them. Homer thus describes a bridal procession:
“The youthful dancers in a circle bound
To the soft flute, and cittern’s silver sound;
Through the fair streets, the matrons in a row
Stand in their porches, and enjoy the show.”
When the chariot arrived at the bridegroom’s dwelling, the axletree was burnt, to signify that the bride was never to return to the paternal roof. As they entered, figs and various kinds of fruit were poured on their heads, as an indication of future plenty. A sumptuous banquet was prepared for relations and friends, after which the company diverted themselves with dances and hymeneal songs.
At Athens, it was customary for a boy to come in during the feast, covered with thorn boughs and scorns, bearing a basket full of bread, and singing, “I have left the worse and found the better.” Some have supposed this was in commemoration of their change of diet from acorns to corn, but Dr. Potter’s supposition seems much more probable; viz. that it was intended to indicate the superiority of marriage over single life.
In Athens, the bride’s feet were always washed in water brought from the fountain of Callirhoe, which was supposed to possess some peculiar virtue. She was lighted to her apartment with several torches. Around one of these flambeaux, the mother tied the hair-lace of her newly wedded daughter, taken from her head for that purpose. Mothers considered it a great misfortune if illness, or any accident, prevented them from performing this ceremony. The married couple ate a quince together, to remind them that their conversation with each other should be sweet and agreeable. The company remained until late at night, dancing and singing songs filled with praises of the bridegroom and bride, and wishes for their happiness. In the morning they returned, and again saluted them with songs. The solemnities continued several days; during which relations and friends offered gifts, consisting of golden vessels, couches, ointment boxes, combs, sandals, &c., carried in great state to the house of the bridegroom by women, preceded by a boy in white apparel, with a torch in his hand, and another bearing a basket of flowers. It was likewise customary for the bridegroom and his friends to give presents to the bride, on the third day after the wedding, which was the first time she appeared unveiled.
The old Athenian laws ordered that men should be thirty-five and women twenty-six, before they married; but Plato considered thirty a suitable age for the bridegroom, and other writers approved of brides as young as eighteen, or fifteen. Grecian women never changed the name they received when infants: thus Xantippe would be distinguished from another of the same name, by being called Xantippe, the wife of Socrates.
In the primitive ages women were purchased by their husbands, and received no dowry from relations; but with the progress of civilization and wealth this custom disappeared, and wives were respected in proportion to the value of their marriage portion. Medea, in Euripides, complains that women were the most miserable of the human race, because they were obliged to buy their own masters at a dear rate. Those who brought no dowry were liable to be spoken of contemptuously, as if they were slaves rather than lawful wives. Hence, when men married women without fortune, they generally gave a written instrument acknowledging the receipt of a dowry. Those who received munificent portions required a greater degree of respect, and expected additional privileges on that account. Hermione, in Euripides, is enraged that the captive Andromache should pretend to rival her in the affections of Pyrrhus; and she thus addresses her:
“With these resplendent ornaments of gold
Decking my tresses, in this robe arrayed,
Which bright with various tinctured radiance flames,
Not from the house of Peleus or Achilles
A bridal gift, I come. In Sparta this
From Menelaus, my father, I received
With a rich dowry: therefore I may speak
Freely, and thus to you address my words.
Woman! would’st thou, a slave, beneath the spear
A captive, keep possession of this house,
And drive me out?”
Some have supposed that Solon intended to forbid dowries, because one of his laws declares, “A bride shall not carry with her to her husband above three garments, and vessels of small value.” But this was probably intended merely to prevent extravagance in dress and furniture; for he allowed men who had no sons to leave their estates to daughters, and express laws were made to secure the property in the family, by regulating the marriage of heiresses. The daughters of several Grecian monarchs carried their husbands whole kingdoms for a dowry. When distinguished men died in poverty, the state sometimes provided for their children. Thus the Athenians gave three hundred drachmas to each of the orphan daughters of Aristides, and bestowed a farm belonging to the city upon the grand-daughter of their famous patriot, Aristogiton. Phares, of Chalcedon, made a law that rich men should give a portion to their daughters when they married poor men, but receive none with their sons’ wives. As luxury increased, it followed, as an inevitable consequence, that marriages were more and more made with a view to the acquisition of wealth; and fathers were disappointed at the birth of a daughter, on account of the expense attending her establishment. It was customary for the bridegroom to build and furnish the house, and to make a settlement large in proportion to her dowry, for the support of his wife in case of death or divorce; but unless a written receipt of dowry could be produced by the woman’s friends, the husband could not be compelled to allow a separate maintenance. Heirs were bound by law to support the wives of those from whom they received estates.
When sons became of age, they enjoyed their mother’s fortune during her lifetime, affording her a maintenance in proportion to her rank. If a woman died without children, her dowry returned to the relative by whom it had been bestowed.
Girls who had no fathers were disposed of by their brothers; and if they had neither parents nor brethren, the duty devolved upon grandfathers, or guardians. Sometimes husbands betrothed their wives to other persons on their death-beds. The father of Demosthenes gave his wife to one Aphobus, with a considerable portion. Aphobus took the portion, but refused to marry the woman after the death of her husband; in consequence of which her son appealed to the magistrates. The same orator engaged in the defence of Phormio, who having been a faithful slave, his master, before he died, bestowed upon him freedom and his wife.
The forms of betrothing varied in some particulars in different cities, but bore a general resemblance. The parties took each other by the right hand, promised fidelity, and sometimes kissed each other, while the relative of the woman pronounced these, or similar words: “I bestow upon thee, ——, my daughter, or my sister, or my ward, with such and such money, lands, cattle, or flocks, for her dowry.”
In case of divorce, a man was obliged to restore his wife’s portion, and was required to pay monthly interest upon it, so long as he detained it from her.
In general the Grecian laws allowed men to put away their wives upon slight occasions; even the fear of having too large a family was considered sufficient ground for divorce. A woman incurred great scandal in departing from her husband. In Athens, if wives had reason to complain of their husbands, they could appeal to the appointed magistrate, by appearing publicly in court, and placing in his hands a written statement of their grievances. Hipparete, the wife of Alcibiades, losing all patience with his continued profligacy, availed herself of this privilege; but when she presented herself before the archon, Alcibiades seized her by force, and carried her off; no person presuming to interfere with his authority.
It was not unusual for the marriage tie to be dissolved with consent of both parties. Thus Pericles and his wife being weary of each other’s society, he bestowed her upon another man, with her own free will and consent. There is likewise reason to suppose that men sometimes lent their wives to each other, without any of the parties incurring blame by the transaction; but when intrigues were carried on without the husband’s sanction, severe penalties were incurred. Women were sometimes put to death, but more generally sold into slavery. They were never after allowed to enter the temples, or wear any but the most ordinary clothing. Whoever found them disobeying these laws, might tear off their garments, and beat them with any degree of severity that did not endanger their life or limbs.
Wealthy paramours generally brought themselves out of difficulty by paying a heavy fine; but those unable to do this, were liable to very severe and disgraceful punishments.
Although the law allowed but one wife, it was thought no dishonor to keep a train of mistresses, who were usually captives taken in war, or women stolen by Grecian sailors and brought home for sale. The public class of women was composed of individuals derived from similar sources; hence the term “strange woman,” (meaning a foreign woman,) was a term of reproach with the Grecians, as well as the Jews. This shameless class were required by Grecian laws to wear flowered garments, by way of distinction from the modest apparel of virtuous women; and various texts of Scripture lead to the supposition that a similar custom prevailed among the Israelites. Some of them acquired immense wealth; and, what is much more singular, they in some instances enjoyed a degree of influence and consideration unattainable by women of purer manners.
When Thebes was demolished by Alexander, Phryne agreed to rebuild the entire walls at her own expense, if they would engrave on them this inscription: “These walls were destroyed by Alexander, but raised again by Phryne the courtesan.” Phryne had a statue of gold at Delphi, placed between two kings. Theopompus, in his letter to Alexander, speaking of a magnificent mausoleum near Athens, says: “This distinguished mark of public respect a courtesan has received; while not one of all those who perished in Asia, fighting for the general safety of Greece, has been thought worthy to receive a similar honor.” Aspasia, first the mistress and afterward the wife of Pericles, obtained unrivalled influence and distinction. The most celebrated of the Athenian philosophers, orators, and poets, delighted in her society, and statesmen consulted her in political emergencies. They even carried their wives and daughters to her house, that they might there study agreeable manners and graceful deportment. This, together with the fact that Pericles made her his wife, and to the day of his death retained such a strong affection for her, that he never left her to go to the senate without bestowing a parting kiss, seems to imply that she could not have been so shockingly depraved as many writers have supposed. It is more probable that she deserves to rank in the same class as the Gabrielles, and Pompadours of modern times. The public and distinguished attention such women received in Greece, was no doubt owing to the fact that they alone dared to throw off the rigorous restraints imposed upon the sex, and devote themselves to graceful accomplishments, seductive manners, and agreeable learning. For this reason it was generally taken for granted that women of very strong, well-cultivated minds were less scrupulous about modesty, than those who lived in ignorance and seclusion. Sappho, the celebrated poetess, has by no means descended to posterity with an untarnished name. But a degree of injustice is no doubt done to her memory, by understanding the fervent language of the Greeks as similar epithets would be understood in the dialect of colder climes. Had Sappho been the most profligate of woman-kind, she would not have been likely to destroy herself for love of one individual. She was the first woman who jumped from the famous promontory of Leucate, called the Lover’s Leap. The superstition prevailed that those who could perform this feat, and be taken up alive, would be cured of their passion.
Many ceremonies were performed by Grecian women in the temple of Eleutho, who presided over the birth of children. During the hours of illness it was customary to hold palm branches in their hands, and invoke the favor of this goddess. The old laws of Athens expressly forbade that women or slaves should practise physic; but one Agnodice, having disguised herself in male attire, studied the art under a skilful professor, and made the fact known to many of her own sex, who gladly agreed to employ her in preference to all others. The jealousy of the physicians led to a discovery of the plot, and Agnodice would have been ruined, had not all the principal matrons of Athens appeared in court and pleaded strongly in her favor. In consequence of their entreaties, the old law was repealed, and women were allowed the attendance of female physicians.
The Grecians generally wrapped infants in swaddling bands, lest their tender limbs should become distorted. In Athens newly born babes were covered with a cloth on which a gorgon’s head was embroidered, because that was represented on the shield of Minerva, to whose care the child was consigned. It was likewise customary to lay boys upon bucklers, as a prognostic of future valor. Infants were often placed upon other things bearing some resemblance to the sort of life for which they were designed. It was common to put them in vans made to winnow corn, and therefore considered as emblems of agricultural plenty. Sometimes instead of a real van, an image of it was made of gold or silver. Wealthy Athenians universally laid young infants upon dragons of gold, in memory of one of their kings, who, when an unprotected babe, was said to have been watched by dragons. When a child was five days old, the nurse took it in her arms and ran round the hearth, thus putting it under the protection of the household gods, to whom the hearth served as an altar. This festival was celebrated with great joy. Friends brought in their gifts, and partook of a feast, peculiar to the occasion. If the child was a boy, the door was decorated with an olive garland; if a girl, wool was a substitute for the olive, in token of the spinning and weaving destined to occupy her maturer years. On the tenth day, another entertainment was given, and the child received its name, which was usually bestowed by the father. It was common to choose the name of some illustrious or beloved ancestor; but names describing personal and moral qualities were frequently given, such as the ruddy faced, the eagle-nosed, the ox-eyed, the gifted, the lover of his brethren, &c.
When the child was forty days old, another festival was kept, and the mother offered sacrifices in Diana’s temple. Athenian nurses quieted fretful babes with sponges dipped in honey.
It was common to expose children, especially females, on account of the expense attending their settlement. Posidippus says:
‘A man, though poor, will not expose his son,
But if he’s rich, will scarce preserve his daughter.’
The children thus exposed were wrapped in swaddling bands, and placed in a sort of ark, or basket. Sometimes jewels were attached to them, as a means of discovery, if any person should find and nourish them; or, as some have supposed, from the superstition that it was important for the child to die with some of the parents’ property in its possession.
The Thebans disliked this cruel practice, and their laws made it a capital offence. Those who were too poor to rear their children, were ordered to carry them to the magistrates, who nourished them, and afterwards received their services in payment.
The Grecians believed in the power of the evil eye, especially over little children. It was generally attributed to one under the influence of malice or envy; and they endeavored to protect an infant from its baneful effects, by tying threads of various colors round the neck, and touching its forehead and lips with spittle mixed with earth.
Filial respect and affection, the distinguishing virtue of olden times, was in high repute among the Grecians. The story of the daughter who nourished her imprisoned father with her own milk, is too well known to need repetition. Alexander the Great having received a letter from Antipater full of charges against Olympias, for her interference with public affairs, the monarch read it, and said, “Antipater knows not that one tear from a mother can blot out a thousand such complaints.”
Solon made a law that women should not join in the public funeral solemnities even of their nearest relations, unless they were threescore years old; but this law did not continue to be observed; for gallants are described as falling in love with young women whom they saw at funerals. It is supposed that men and women formed separate portions of the procession; the former preceding the corpse, the latter following it. Mourning women were employed to sing dirges, and bewail the dead. They beat their breasts, disfigured their faces, and made use of other violent demonstrations of grief. The female relatives of the departed often joined in these excesses, altogether regardless of the hideous scars produced thereby; but this practice was forbidden by Solon. In many places it was the custom for women to shave their heads, and spread their tresses over the corpse. They laid aside all ornaments and rich attire, and wore black garments made of coarse materials. Those who were joined by near relationship, or strong affection, generally shared the same funeral urn. Thus Halcyone, whose husband perished at sea, says:
“Though in one urn our ashes be not laid,
On the same marble shall our names be read;
In amorous folds the circling words shall join,
And show how much I loved—how you was only mine.”
A very beautiful bas-relief found at Athens, represents a woman seated, while a man with three little children seem bidding her an affectionate farewell. It probably marked the sleeping-place of some beloved wife and mother. At the funeral of a married woman, matrons carried vases of water to pour upon her grave; girls performed this office for maidens, and boys for young men. These processions of water-bearers are often represented on ancient sepulchres. An owl, a muzzle, and a pair of reins, were often carved on the tombs of women; as emblems of watchfulness, silence, and careful superintendence of the family.
It was not uncommon for widows to marry a second time; but those who did otherwise were regarded with peculiar respect. Charondas excluded from public councils those men who married a second wife, when they already had children. “Those who do not consult the good of their own family cannot advise well for the good of the country,” said he. “He whose first marriage has been happy, ought to rest satisfied with his share of good fortune; if unhappy, he is out of his senses to incur another risk.”
In very early times the priestesses were allowed to marry; thus Homer speaks of the beautiful Theano, wife of Antenor, who was unanimously chosen priestess of Minerva. At later periods, all who were devoted to the service of the temples were required to live unmarried.
The oracles of the gods were universally uttered by women. The most celebrated was the Delphian oracle of Apollo. The priestess who uttered the prophetic words was called Pythia, or Pythonissa. She was obliged to observe the strictest rules of temperance and virtue, and to clothe herself in simple, modest, and maidenly apparel. They neither anointed nor wore purple garments, because such habits belonged to the rich and luxurious. In early times the Pythia was chosen from young maidens; but in consequence of a brutal insult offered to one of them, the selection was ever after made from women more than fifty years old. Before the prophetess ascended the tripus, where she was to receive inspiration, she bathed herself, especially her hair, in the fountain of Castalia, at the foot of Parnassus. When she seated herself upon the tripus, she shook the laurel tree, that grew near it, and sometimes ate the leaves, which were thought to contain some virtue favorable to prophecy. In a short time she began to foam at the mouth, tear her hair, and cut her flesh, like a maniac. The words she uttered during these paroxysms were the oracles. The fits were more or less violent; sometimes comparatively gentle. Plutarch speaks of one enraged to such a degree that the terrified priests ran from her, and she died soon after. The time of consulting the oracle was only one month, in the spring of the year.
Women had their share in sacred festivals among the Greeks. In the processions of the Panathenæa, in honor of Minerva, women clothed in white carried torches and the sacred baskets. At the annual solemnity in honor of Hyacinthus and Apollo, the Laconian women appeared in magnificent covered chariots, and sometimes in open race-chariots. At the processions in honor of Juno, her priestess, who was always a matron of the highest rank, rode in a chariot drawn by white oxen. Aristophanes describes the wife and daughter of a citizen as assisting in the ceremonials of a rural sacrifice to Bacchus. The girl carried a golden basket filled with fruit, and a ladle with which certain herbs were poured over the sacred cakes. Her father followed, singing a hymn to the god, while the mother, standing on the house-top, watched the procession, and charged her daughter to conduct herself like a lady, as she was, and to be cautious lest her golden ornaments were stolen in the crowd.
One of the most ancient ceremonies among the Greek women was that of bewailing annually, with dirges and loud cries, the death of Adonis. Processions were formed, and images of Venus and Adonis carried aloft, together with shells filled with earth, in which lettuces were growing. This was done in commemoration of Adonis laid out by Venus on a bed of lettuce.
In Attica, all girls not over ten or under five were consecrated to the service of Diana, during a solemnity which took place once in five years. On that occasion all female children of the proper age appeared dressed in yellow robes, while victims were offered to the goddess, and certain men sung one of Homer’s Iliads. No Athenian woman was allowed to be married unless this ceremony had been performed.
The festival in honor of Ceres was observed with much solemnity at Athens. None but free-born women were allowed to be present; and every husband who received a portion of three talents with his wife, was obliged to assist in defraying the expenses. The women were assisted in the ceremonials by a priest, who wore a crown, and by certain maidens, who were strictly secluded, kept under severe discipline, and maintained at the public charge. The solemnity lasted four days. All the women who aided in it were clothed in simple white garments, without ornaments or flowers. Not the slightest immodesty or merriment was permitted; but it was a custom to say jesting things to each other, in memory of Jambe, who by a jest extorted a smile from Ceres, when she was discouraged and melancholy. On one of the festival days, the women walked in procession to Eleusis, carrying books on their heads, in memory of Ceres, who was said to have first taught mankind the use of laws; on this occasion it was against the law for any one to ride in a chariot. There was likewise a mysterious sacrifice to Ceres, from which all men were excluded; this was said to have been because in a dangerous war, the prayers of women so prevailed with the gods, that their enemies were driven away.
The custom of offering human beings as sacrifices to the gods was regarded with great abhorrence by the primitive Greeks; but several instances occurred in later times where captives taken in war were devoted to this purpose. There is reason to suppose that the victims were generally men; but there were exceptions to this remark. Bacchus had an altar in Arcadia, upon which young damsels were beaten to death with bundles of rods. Iphigenia, daughter of Agamemnon, was likewise about to be sacrificed to Diana, because the soothsayer so decreed, when the Greeks were kept back from the Trojan war by contrary winds; and Macaria, the daughter of Hercules and Dejanira, voluntarily offered herself as a victim, when the oracle declared that one of her father’s family must die, to insure victory over their enemies. Great honors were paid to the memory of this patriotic girl, and a fountain in Marathon was called by her name.
The Athenian slaves were much protected by the laws. If a female slave had cause to complain of any want of respect to the laws of modesty, she could seek the protection of the temple, and demand a change of owners; and such appeals were never discountenanced or neglected by the magistrates.
The Milesian women being at one period much addicted to suicide, a law was passed that all who died by their own hands should be exposed to the public; and this effectually prevented an evil, which no other means had been able to prevent.
The customs of Sparta differed in many respects from the rest of Greece. When a match was decided upon, the mother, or nurse of the bride, or some other woman who presided over the arrangements, shaved the girl’s hair, dressed her in masculine attire, and left her alone in an apartment at evening. The lover, in his every-day clothes, sought an opportunity to enter by stealth, but took care to return to his own abode before daylight, that his absence might not be detected by his companions. In this manner only did custom allow them to visit their wives, until they became mothers. Lycurgus passed a law forbidding any dowry to be given to daughters, in order that marriage might take place from motives of affection only. Marriage was much encouraged in every part of Greece, and peculiarly so in Sparta. The age at which both sexes might marry was prescribed by law, and any man who lived without a wife beyond the limited time was liable to severe penalties. Once every winter, they were compelled to run round the forum without clothing, and sing a certain song, the words of which exposed them to ridicule; they were not allowed to be present at the exercises where beautiful young maidens contended; on a certain festival, the women were allowed to drag them round an altar, beating them with their fists; and young people were not required to treat them with the same degree of respect that belonged to fathers of families.
Polygamy was not allowed, and divorces were extremely rare; but the laws encouraged husbands to lend their wives when they thought proper. Lycurgus reversed the Athenian custom, and allowed brother and sister of the same mother to marry, while he forbade it if they both had the same father. In Sparta there was a very ancient statue, called Venus Juno, to which mothers offered sacrifice on the occasion of a daughter’s marriage.
Damsels appeared abroad unveiled, but married women covered their faces. Charilus, being asked the reason of this practice, replied, “Girls wish to obtain husbands, and wives aim only at keeping those they already have.” Lycurgus ordered that maidens should exercise themselves with running, wrestling, throwing quoits, and casting darts, with the view of making them healthy and vigorous; and for fear they might have too much fastidiousness and refinement, he ordered them to appear on these occasions without clothing. All the magistrates and young men assembled to witness their performances, a part of which were composed of dances and songs. These songs consisted of eulogiums upon such men as had distinguished themselves by bravery, and satirical allusions to those who had been cowardly or effeminate; and as they were sung in hearing of the senate and people, no inconsiderable degree of pride or shame was excited in those who were the subjects of them.
The Spartans bathed new-born infants in wine, from the idea that vigorous children would be strengthened by it, while those who were weakly would either faint, or fall into convulsions. Fathers were not allowed to educate and nourish their own children, if they were desirous to do so. All infants, being considered the property of the commonwealth, were brought to the magistrates to be examined. If vigorous and well formed, a certain portion of land was allotted for their maintenance; but if they appeared sickly or deformed, they were thrown into a deep cavern and left to perish.
The Spartan nurses were so celebrated, that they were eagerly sought for by people of other countries. They never used swaddling bands, and religiously observed the ceremony of laying infants upon bucklers, as soon as they were born. They taught children to eat any kind of food, or to endure the privation of it for a long time; not to be afraid when left alone, or in the dark; to be ashamed of crying, and proud to take care of themselves.
The Spartans mourned for deceased relations with great composure and moderation; though when a king died, it was customary for men, women, and slaves, to meet together in great numbers, and tear the flesh from their foreheads with sharp instruments. Indeed, in all things they endeavored to make their own interest and feelings subordinate to the public good. When news came of the disastrous overthrow of the Lacedæmonian army at Leuctra, those matrons who expected to receive their sons alive from the battle, were silent and melancholy; while those who received an account that their children were slain in battle, went to the temples to offer thanksgivings, and congratulated each other with every demonstration of joy.
The Lacedæmonians usually carried bodies to the grave on bucklers; hence the command of the Spartan mother to her son, “either to bring his buckler back from the wars, or be brought upon it.”
Some foreign women said to Gorgo, wife of king Leonidas, “You Spartans are the only women that govern men.” “Because we are the only women who give birth to men,” she replied. This answer was in allusion to their own strength and vigor, and to the pains they took to make their boys bold and hardy.
The Lacedæmonian women seem to have had a share in all the concerns of the commonwealth; and during the early portions of their history they appear to have been well worthy of the respect paid to them. When a new senator was chosen, he was crowned with a garland, and the women assembled to sing his domestic virtues and his warlike courage. At the public feast given in honor of his election, he called the female relative for whom he had the greatest esteem and gave her a portion, saying, “That which I received as a mark of honor, I give to you.” When Cleomenes, king of Sparta, was beset with powerful enemies, the king of Egypt agreed to furnish him with succors, provided he would send his mother and his children as hostages. Filial respect and tenderness made the prince extremely unwilling to name this requisition. His mother, perceiving that he made an effort to conceal something from her, persuaded her friends to tell her what it was. As soon as she heard it, she laughed outright, and said, “Was this the thing you so long hesitated to communicate? Put us on board a ship, and send this old carcase of mine wherever you think it may be of the most use to Sparta, before age renders it good for nothing, and sinks it into the grave.” When everything was ready for departure, she, being alone with her son, saw that he struggled hard with emotion. She threw her arms around him, and said, “King of the Lacedæmonians, be careful that we do nothing unworthy of Sparta! This alone is in our power; the event belongs to the gods.”
When Cleombrotus rebelled against his wife’s father, in spite of her entreaties, and usurped the kingdom, Chelonis left her husband and followed the fallen fortunes of her parent; but when the tide turned, and Cleombrotus was in disgrace and danger, she joined her husband as a suppliant for royal mercy, and was found sitting by him, with the utmost tenderness, with her two children at her feet. She assured her father that if his submission and her tears could not save his life, she would die before him. The king, softened by her entreaties, changed the intended sentence of death into exile, and begged his daughter to remain with a father who loved her so affectionately. But Chelonis could not be persuaded. She followed her husband into banishment.
Such was the character of Spartan women in the earlier periods of their history; but in later times their boldness and immodesty increased to such a degree that they became a by-word and a reproach throughout Greece.
In Grecian mythology, the goddesses are about as numerous and important as the gods. That Beauty, Health, and Majesty should be represented as female deities, is by no means remarkable; but, considering the estimation in which women were held, it is somewhat singular that Wisdom should have been a goddess, and that sister muses should have presided over history, epic poetry, dramatic poetry, and astronomy. The tradition that Ceres first taught the use of laws does not probably imply that legislation was invented by a woman; but that as men left a wandering life, and devoted themselves to agriculture, (of which Ceres was the personification,) they began to perceive the necessity of laws for mutual defence and protection.
In the earliest and best days of Rome, the first magistrates and generals of armies ploughed their own fields, and threshed their own grain. Integrity, industry, and simplicity, were the prevailing virtues of the times; and the character of women was, as it always must be, in accordance with that of men. Columella says: “Roman husbands, having completed the labors of the day, entered their houses, free from all care, and there enjoyed perfect repose. There reigned union, and concord, and industry, supported by mutual affection. The most beautiful woman depended for distinction only on her economy, and endeavors to assist in crowning her husband’s diligence with prosperity. All was in common between them; nothing was thought to belong more to one than another. The wife, by her assiduity and activity within doors, equalled and seconded the industry and labor of her husband.”
It was common for sons to marry and bring home their wives to the paternal estate. Plutarch says: “There were not fewer than sixteen of the Ælian family and name, who had only a small house and one farm among them; and in this house they all lived, with their wives and many children. Here dwelt the daughter of Æmilius, who had been twice consul, and had triumphed twice; not ashamed of her husband’s poverty, but admiring that virtue which kept him poor.”
Tanaquil, wife of Tarquin the First, one of the best kings of Rome, was noted for her industry and ingenuity, as well as energy and ambition. Her distaff was hung up in the temple of Hercules, and her girdle, with a robe she embroidered for her son-in-law, were long preserved with the utmost veneration. Her political influence seems to have been great, and her liberality munificent. Her husband was originally a private citizen of Tarquinia; but her knowledge of augury led her to predict that an uncommon destiny awaited him at Rome, and she persuaded him to go thither. After his death, she succeeded in raising her son-in-law, Servius Tullius, to the throne.
Lucretia, a young matron of high rank, was found busy among her maidens, assisting their spinning and weaving, and preparation of wool, when her husband arrived with his guests, late in the evening. The high value placed upon a stainless reputation may be inferred from the fact that Lucretia would not survive dishonor, though she had been the blameless victim of another’s vices.
Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus, was courted by a monarch, but preferred being the wife of Sempronius Gracchus, a Roman citizen. After the death of her husband, she took the entire management of his estate, and the education of her sons. She was distinguished for virtue, learning, and good sense. She wrote and spoke with uncommon elegance and purity. Cicero and Quintilian bestow high praise upon her letters. The eloquence of her children was attributed to her careful superintendence. When a Campanian lady ostentatiously displayed a profusion of jewels, and begged Cornelia to show hers, she exhibited her boys, just returned from school, saying: “These are my jewels; the only ornaments of which I can boast.” During her lifetime, a statue was erected in honor of her character, bearing this inscription: “Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi.”
The rigid decorum of Roman manners may be inferred from the circumstance that Cato expelled a senator, merely because he kissed his wife in the presence of his daughter. “For my own part,” said he, “my wife never embraces me except when it thunders terribly;” adding, by way of joke, “I am a very happy man when Jove is pleased to thunder.”
The superior condition of Roman women, in comparison with the Greeks, may in a great measure be attributed to an event that occurred in the very beginning of their history.
Romulus, being unable to obtain wives for the citizens of his new commonwealth, celebrated public games, to which people of neighboring nations were invited. In the midst of the entertainment he and his soldiers seized a large number of women, principally Sabines, and carried them off to his camp. Their restitution was demanded and refused; but the warlike husbands, anxious to conciliate the affections of wives obtained in a manner so violent, treated them with such tenderness, that the women were themselves unwilling to return to their relatives. This led to a war with the Sabines, and Romulus was closely besieged in his citadel. At this crisis, Hersilia, his wife, asked and obtained an audience with the senate, in which she told them that the women had formed a design of acting as mediators between their husbands and fathers. A decree was immediately passed in favor of the proposition. Every woman was required to leave one of her children, as a hostage of her return; the others they carried in their arms, to soften the feelings of their parents. They proceeded to the Sabine camp, dressed in deep mourning, and knelt at the feet of their relatives. Hersilia described the kindness of their husbands, and their own reluctance to be torn from their families, in a manner so eloquent and pathetic, that an honorable and friendly alliance was soon agreed upon.
In consideration of this important service, the Romans conferred peculiar privileges on women. In capital cases, they were exempted from the jurisdiction of ordinary judges; no immodest language or behavior was allowed in their presence; every one was ordered to give way to them in the street; and a festival was instituted in their honor, called Matronalia, during which they served their slaves at table, and received presents from their husbands.
Three kinds of marriage were in use among the Romans, called confarreatio, coemptio, and usus. The first was established by Romulus, and was the most solemn, as well as the most ancient. A priest, in the presence of at least ten witnesses, pronounced certain words, and sacrificed to the gods a cake made of salt, water, and wheat-flour. The bride and bridegroom ate of this cake, to signify the union which ought to bind them. This manner of celebrating marriage made a wife the partner of all her husband’s substance, and gave her a right to share in the peculiar sacred rites attached to his family. If he died intestate, and without children, she inherited his whole fortune, as a daughter; if he left children, she shared equally with them. If she committed any fault, the husband judged of it in presence of her relations, and punished her at pleasure. Sometimes when women were publicly condemned by law, the penalty was left to the judgment of her husband and relations. The priests of Jupiter were chosen from sons born of this kind of marriage, and the vestal virgins were selected from the daughters.
The coemptio, or mutual purchase, consisted of the bride and bridegroom’s giving each other pieces of money. The man asked the woman, “Are you willing to be the mistress of my family?” She answered, “I am willing;” and then asked him a similar question, to which he replied in the same manner. According to some authors it was accompanied with the same ceremonies, and conferred the same privileges, as the other form of marriage; and it continued in use a long time after confarreatio was out of date.
That which was called usus, or usage, was when a woman, with consent of her parents or guardians, lived a whole year with a man, without being absent from his house three nights. She thus became his wife, and is supposed to have had the same rights and privileges as other wives; but if absent three nights, she was said to have annulled the contract.
No young man was allowed to marry before he was fourteen, and no girl before she was twelve. A man sixty years old was not permitted to marry a woman younger than fifty; and if he was more than sixty, he could not marry a woman of fifty.
Brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, and cousin-germans, were not permitted to marry each other. For some time it was contrary to law for a patrician to marry a plebeian; but this continued only about five years.
All alliances with women of blemished reputation, or low extraction, were considered dishonorable. No marriage of a Roman with a foreigner could be legal, unless express permission had been first obtained from the government. Cicero even reproached Anthony for marrying Fulvia, because her father was a freed-man. A law was, however, passed, by which only senators, their sons, and grandsons, were forbidden to marry a freed-woman, an actress, or the daughter of an actor. Finally the right of citizenship was granted to all inhabitants of countries belonging to the Roman empire, and the stigma attached to foreign alliances was removed.
Neither sons nor daughters could marry without their father’s approbation. The mother’s consent was usually asked as a matter of propriety, though there was no legal restriction to that effect.
When the consent of parents had been obtained, the relatives held a meeting to settle the articles of contract, which were written and sealed, in presence of witnesses. They broke a straw, according to their custom in making bargains; hence it was called stipulation, from stipula, a straw. This occasion was usually celebrated by a feast, during which the bridegroom made presents to the bride, and gave her a ring, that in early times was plain, and made of iron, but afterwards of gold. It was worn on the fourth finger of the left hand, on account of the idea that a vein went from that finger to the heart. Some of these bridal rings were made of brass or copper, with the figure of a key, to signify that the husband delivered her the keys of his house. Some of them have been found bearing devices; such as I love you. I wish you a happy life. Love me. If, after the espousals, either party wished to retract, they could do so, by observing certain forms.
The marriage portion varied according to the wealth and rank of the parties. It was delivered in money, or secured upon lands; and was paid at three terms fixed by law. The husband was not permitted to alienate it; and in case of divorce, except it took place by his wife’s fault, her relations could reclaim it. If any citizen caused a woman to lose her fair fame, he was obliged to marry her without a portion, or give her one proportioned to her rank. In the first days of the republic, dowries were very small. The senate gave the daughter of Scipio about £35 10s.; and one Megullia was surnamed Dotata, or the Great Fortune, because she had £161 7s. 6d. sterling. But as wealth increased, the marriage portions became greater, until eight or nine thousand pounds sterling was the usual dowry of women of high rank. Seneca says, “The sum that the senate thought sufficient dowry for the daughter of Scipio, would not now suffice even the daughters of our freed-men to buy a mirror.”
No marriage took place without first consulting the auspices, and sacrificing to the gods, especially to Juno, who presided over matrimonial engagements. Like the Greeks, they took the gall from the victims, and threw it behind the altar.
Certain days and festivals were regarded as unlucky for a wedding; particularly those marked in the calendar with black; but widows might marry on those days. The whole month of May was regarded as unfortunate for marriage, and the middle of June peculiarly auspicious. The ceremony was performed at the house of the bride’s father, or nearest relation. She was dressed in a long white robe bordered with purple, and fastened with a girdle made of wool. Her hair was divided into six locks with the point of a spear, and crowned with a wreath of vervain gathered by herself. Her face was covered with a flame-colored veil, and she wore high shoes of the same color. In the evening, she was conducted to her husband’s house. She was taken apparently by force from the arms of her mother, or nearest female relative, in memory of the Sabine women seized by Roman soldiers. Three boys, who had parents living, attended upon her; one supporting each arm, and the third walking before her with a lighted flambeau. Relations and friends eagerly sought to carry away this torch, when they came near the bridegroom’s house; partly on account of some peculiar virtue it was supposed to possess, and partly for fear it should be made use of for some fascination, that would shorten the lives of the young couple.
A young slave followed the bride, carrying, in a covered vase, her toilet, and corals, and children’s playthings of all kinds, accompanied by maidens, bearing distaff, spindle, and wool. A great train of relations and friends attended the nuptial procession. The door of the bridegroom’s house was adorned with festoons, garlands of flowers, and lists of woollen, rubbed with oil, and the fat of swine or wolves, to avert enchantments. When the bride arrived thither, being asked who she was, she answered, “Caia.” This custom was taken from the name of Caia Cœcilia, generally called Tanaquil; and the bride’s answer implied that she intended to imitate such a good and industrious wife. She then bound the door-posts of her bridegroom with woollen fillets, likewise anointed with oil, and the fat of swine or wolves; from this circumstance the Latin word for wife is uxor, which signifies the anointer; and our word uxorious is thence derived.
The bride was gently lifted over her husband’s threshold; for it was reckoned a bad omen to touch it with her feet, because the threshold was sacred to Vesta, who presided over female purity.
As soon as she entered, they sprinkled her with water, and delivered the keys of the house, to show that she was intrusted with the management of the family; and a sheep-skin was spread before her, indicating that she was to work in wool. Both she and her husband were required to touch fire and water; and with the water their feet were afterward bathed. In the early ages they put a yoke about the neck of the young couple, as an emblem of the mutual assistance they were expected to render each other in the cares and duties of life. The Latin word conjugium, a yoke, is the origin of our word conjugial. The bridegroom feasted the relations, friends, and attendants of himself and bride. He was placed at the head of the table, and the bride was laid in his bosom. The feast was distinguished for the abundance, variety, and delicacy of the refreshments. It was accompanied with music. The guests sung to the honor of the newly married an epithalamium, beginning and ending with acclamations, in which was often repeated the name of Thalassius. The following circumstance is supposed to have been the origin of this custom: when the Sabine women were forcibly carried to the Roman camp, one of them, very remarkable for her youthful beauty, attracted so much attention, that quarrels were likely to ensue concerning her. The men who carried her, wishing to avoid any such contention, thought of exclaiming aloud that they were carrying her to Thalassius, a handsome and brave young man, exceedingly beloved by the people. As soon as this was proclaimed, the soldiers withdrew all opposition, and rent the air with acclamations of the hero’s name. The marriage thus prepared for Thalassius proved so happy and prosperous, that the Romans ever after, in their epithalamia, were accustomed to wish the newly-married pair a destiny like his.
The bride was conducted to her apartment by matrons, who had been married to only one husband. The bridegroom scattered nuts among the boys, and the bride consecrated her dolls and playthings to Venus, thereby intimating that they relinquished the sports of childhood. When the guests departed, small presents were distributed among them.
Next day another entertainment was given, when presents were sent to the bride by relations and friends, and she performed certain sacred rites appropriate to the mistress of a family. The goods which a woman brought her husband beside her dowry were called bona paraphernalia.
Daughters generally received the name of their father, or some relation, varied only by ending according to the feminine instead of the masculine gender: thus Hortensia was the daughter of Hortensius; and the two daughters of Mark Antony were named Antonia Major, and Antonia Minor. By way of endearment they frequently made use of those diminutives, to which the language of Italy owes so much of its gracefulness; thus the beloved daughter of Tullius Cicero was called Tulliola. In a numerous family, girls were often distinguished from each other by the diminutives of numbers; as Secundilla, and Quartilla, the Second and the Fourth. At marriage, a woman retained her original name with the addition of her husband’s; thus Cornelia, the wife of Sempronius Gracchus, was called Cornelia Sempronia.
The birth of children was celebrated by a domestic festival, during which the gates were adorned with branches, garlands, and lamps, and a piece of money was deposited in the temple of Juno Lucina, whose office corresponded to the Eleutho of the Grecians. Boys received the family name on the ninth day after birth, and girls on the eighth; but they did not give the prænomen, or, as we should say, the baptismal name, until they took the virile robe, which marked their entrance into manhood; and girls did not receive it till they were married.
Romulus introduced the Spartan custom of exposing all sickly and deformed children; with this restriction, that every child should be nourished three years, in order to try whether it would not, in that interval, attain health and vigor. In later times, this prohibition was disregarded, and the custom of exposing infants became very common.
While the Romans retained their primitive simplicity, mothers nursed their own babes, and would have considered it a great misfortune or reproach, to have employed another to fulfil that tender office; but as luxury increased, indolence and love of pleasure so far conquered maternal affection, that women of rank almost universally consigned their children to the care of female slaves.
Education kept pace with the changing character of the people. At first, children were brought up in habits of laborious industry. When the arts and sciences were introduced, the cultivation of the mind and manners received a considerable degree of attention; and we know that girls shared in these privileges, because when Claudius wished to seize the beautiful Virginia as a slave, in order to deliver her to the infamous Appius, he arrested her as she returned from school, attended by her governante. In the last days of Rome, personal habits were exceedingly luxurious, and education became showy and superficial, because it was acquired from vanity, rather than a love of knowledge. The power of Roman fathers was excessive. They could imprison their children, load them with fetters, make them work with the slaves, sell them, and even put them to death; but mothers had no legal share in this authority. A story is told of a Roman girl, who was starved to death by her father, because she picked the lock of a wine chest, to get at the wine.
The habit of adopting children, even when the parents on both sides were living, was very common. The adopted were subject to the same authority, and received the same share of inheritance, as real sons and daughters. They generally retained the name of their own family, in addition to the one into which they were adopted.
Though the Romans rivalled all preceding nations in justice and kindness toward women, yet husbands were intrusted with a degree of power, which modern nations would consider dangerous. A man might divorce his wife, if she violated the matrimonial vow, poisoned his offspring, brought upon him suppositious children, counterfeited his private keys, or drank wine without his knowledge. Valerius Maximus says that Egnatius Metellus, having detected his wife drinking wine out of a cask, put her to death, and was acquitted by Romulus.
The ancient Romans did not allow women to inherit property; but as wealth increased, fathers did not like to leave their fortunes to distant male relatives, while their daughters were left portionless; they therefore managed to elude the law, by making such provision for their children, as rendered the estates so taken of little value. The people, vexed at these proceedings, passed the Voconian law, by which no woman could inherit an estate, even if she were an only child; but after a time, the right of succession, both in moveables and land, was granted to females after the death of their brothers.
Women could not dispose of property, or transact any business of importance, without the concurrence of a parent, husband, or guardian. Sometimes a man appointed a guardian to his widow, or daughters, and sometimes they were allowed to choose for themselves. In some cases, discreet elderly women were appointed guardians. No women, except the vestal virgins, were allowed to give evidence in a court of justice concerning wills. The favorite attendants of noble Romans were sometimes intrusted with an extraordinary degree of power over the wives of their masters. Justinian’s principal eunuch threatened to chastise the empress, if she did not obey his orders. These facts show that Roman women were by no means admitted to the social equality, which characterizes the intercourse of the sexes at the present time; but they ate and drank with the men, were present at convivial entertainments, enjoyed the evening air in the public groves, accompanied by fathers, husbands, or brothers, and enjoyed many privileges to which the women of neighboring nations were entire strangers.
The Romans treated female captives with shameless brutality. Queens and princesses were compelled to submit to the grossest personal indignities, and were often dragged through the streets chained to the conqueror’s chariot wheels. The stern ferocity that mingled with their better qualities is shown in the story of one of the Horatii, who killed his sister, merely because she wept for her lover slain by his hand; and the example of Marcia, wife of Regulus, who shut up some Carthagenian prisoners in a barrel filled with sharp nails, to revenge her husband, who had been put to death in Carthage. It is, however, true that these actions were not sanctioned by public opinion; for Horatius was punished, and the senate interfered to check the wanton cruelty of Marcia.
The Romans followed the common practice of hiring mourning women to sing funeral songs in praise of the dead. The nearest female relations sometimes tore their garments, and covered their hair with dust. In the funeral procession, sons veiled their faces, and daughters went with uncovered heads and dishevelled hair, contrary to the usual practice of both. They followed the Grecian custom of burning the corpse, and depositing the ashes in an urn. Infants, that died before they had teeth, were buried, not burned; and all children not weaned were carried to the grave by their mothers. The sepulchres were covered with flowers and garlands, and a small altar was placed near, on which libations were made, and incense burnt.
It was thought dishonorable for men to mourn; but the law prescribed that women should mourn ten months for a parent, or a husband. During this time they laid aside ornaments, and purple garments, and staid at home, avoiding all amusements; some even refrained from kindling a fire in the house on account of its cheerful appearance. Under the republic, women dressed in black like the men; but under the emperors, when party-colored garments came in fashion, they wore white for mourning. If a widow married within ten months after her husband’s decease, she was held infamous. Indeed second marriages were never esteemed honorable in women. Even in the most corrupt days of the empire, those who had been married but to one husband were treated with peculiar deference; hence Univira is often found on ancient sepulchres, as an epithet of honor.
Plutarch says maidens never married on festivals, nor widows on working-days, because marriage was honorable to the one and seemed not to be so to the other; for which reason they celebrated the marriage of widows in presence of a few, and on days that called off the attention of the people to other spectacles. Those who remained widows had the first place in certain solemn ceremonies. The crown of chastity was decreed to them; and if they married again, they were never after allowed to enter the temple of that divinity.
The Romans borrowed their mythology from the Grecian, where female deities abound. When they invoked the gods by name, in their temples, the Romans, in order to avoid mistakes, were accustomed to add, “Whether thou art a god, or whether thou art a goddess.” Women, as well as men, filled the sacred office of the priesthood. The vestal virgins were young girls, six in number, devoted to the service of Vesta. When any vacancy occurred, twenty maidens, not younger than six, or older than sixteen, were selected from the families of Roman citizens. It was required that their parents should both be living, and free-born, and that they themselves should be without any bodily imperfection or infirmity. It was determined by lot which of the twenty should be chosen; unless some one, with requisite qualifications, was voluntarily offered by parents, and approved by the pontifex maximus, or high priest. The vestals were bound to their ministry for thirty years. For the first ten, they learned the sacred rites; for the next ten, they performed them; and for the last ten, they taught the younger virgins. It was the business of the vestals to keep the sacred fire continually burning; they watched it in the night time alternately; and whoever allowed it to go out, was severely scourged. The fire was relighted from the rays of the sun, and extraordinary sacrifices were made to avert the unlucky omen. Certain sacred images, on the preservation of which the safety of Rome was supposed to depend, were likewise intrusted to the care of the vestals. Wills and testaments were often deposited in their hands, by people who were afraid that relations would commit frauds and forgeries. They were chosen as the umpires of difficulties between persons of rank; and their prayers were thought to have peculiar influence[Pg 53] with the gods. Even the prætors and consuls, when they met them in the street, lowered their fasces, and went out of the way, to show them respect. They were supported by a public salary; had a lictor to attend them in the streets; rode in chariots; and sat in a distinguished place at the spectacles. Any insult to them was punished with death; and if a criminal chanced to meet one of them on his way to execution, he was immediately set at liberty, provided the vestal affirmed that the meeting was unintentional. They were allowed to make their wills, although under age; and were not subject to the power of parents or guardians, like other women. They were not forced to swear, unless so inclined; and their testimony was admitted concerning wills, though no other female was allowed to give evidence on the subject. Beside these exclusive honors, they enjoyed all the privileges of matrons who had three children.
If any vestal violated her vow of chastity, she was buried alive, with funeral solemnities, after being tried and sentenced; and her paramour was scourged to death in the forum. Such an event was always thought to forebode some dreadful calamity to the state, and extraordinary sacrifices were offered in expiation.
When the vestals were first chosen, their hair was cut off, and buried under an old lotus tree in the city; but it was afterward allowed to grow. They wore long white robes, edged with purple, and their heads were decorated with fillets and ribands. When they left the service of the temple, they might marry; but this was seldom done, and always reckoned ominous.
There was at Rome a temple to the goddess who presided over the peace of marriages, and the appeasement of husbands. Gibbon remarks that her name, Viriplaca, shows that repentance and submission were always expected from the woman. When domestic quarrels occurred, sacrifices were offered in this temple, to procure reconciliation.
Beside innumerable religious ceremonies appropriated to certain families, and performed on certain occasions, it was customary for the Roman women, at the end of every consular year, to celebrate in the house of the consul, or prætor, certain rites in honor of Bona Dea, or the good goddess. No man was allowed to be present; even the consul himself was obliged to leave his dwelling. Before the ceremonies commenced, every corner and lurking-place was carefully searched; all pictures and statues of men contained within the building were covered with a thick veil; and male animals of every kind were driven away. All being in readiness, the vestal virgins offered the customary sacrifices; and women kept a secret so much better than free masons have done, that to this day there is no conjecture in what the ceremonies consisted, or why they were observed. Only one attempt was ever made to violate the prescribed rules. While Pompeia, the third wife of Julius Cæsar, was celebrating the mysteries, Clodius, a profligate Roman, who was enamored of her beauty, habited himself as a singing girl, and walked through the rooms, avoiding the light as much as possible. A maiden asked him to sing; and as he did not reply, she followed him so closely that he was obliged to speak. His voice betrayed him, and the maiden shrieked aloud that the sacrifices were profaned by the presence of a man. He was driven out with ignominy, and soon after brought before the judges; but the populace were in his favor, and he was acquitted. Cæsar did not believe that Pompeia was aware of the intentions of Clodius; but he immediately repudiated her, saying, “the wife of Cæsar must not even be suspected.” On this occasion, Cicero made the following remarks: “This sacrifice, which is performed by the vestal virgins—which is performed for the prosperity of the Roman people—which is performed in the house of the chief magistrate—celebrated with unknown ceremonies—in honor of a goddess, whose very name it is sacrilege to know—this sacrifice Clodius profaned!”
Beside the augurs, or soothsayers, the Romans believed in certain women, supernaturally inspired, called sibyls. The most celebrated is the sibyl of Cumæ, in Italy. It was said that Apollo became enamored of her, and offered to give whatever she would ask. She demanded to live as many years, as she had grains of sand in her hand; but unfortunately forgot to ask for a continuance of youth and health. She usually wrote her prophecies on leaves, which she placed at the entrance of her cave; and unless they were gathered up before the wind dispersed them, they became incomprehensible. The Roman historians declare that one of the sibyls came to the palace of Tarquin the Second, with nine volumes, which she offered to sell at a very high price. The proposal being disregarded, she burned three, and asked the same price for the remaining six; and when Tarquin refused to buy them, she burned three more, and still required the same sum for the remainder. This singular conduct surprised the king so much, that he consulted the soothsayers, who lamented the destruction of so many of the books, and advised him to purchase those that remained. The sibyl disappeared, and never returned. The books were intrusted to the care of the priests, and consulted with the greatest solemnity on all important occasions.
The Romans, like the Greeks, had firm belief in omens and enchantments, over which they supposed the moon presided; hence their witches were represented as haggard old women, muttering incantations, and accompanied by dogs howling at the moon.
Paulus Æmilius, having been appointed commander-in-chief against Perseus, and conducted home from the Campus Martius in a very splendid manner, found his little daughter Tertia in tears. He took her in his arms, and asked her why she wept. The child embraced him, and said, “Don’t you know, then, father, that Perseus is dead?” The girl alluded to her little dog; but Æmilius replied, “I hail the lucky omen!”
The Romans likewise used philtres. Lucullus lost his senses by a love potion; and Caligula was thrown into a fit of madness by a philtre which his wife Cæsonia administered.
The ancient dress of Roman women was modest and simple, like their characters. They wore a tunic and toga, like those of the men, excepting that the tunic had sleeves, was high in the neck, and long enough to reach to the feet. The toga was a sort of ample robe fastened on the shoulder, and falling in graceful folds. They wore bands, or fillets, wrapped around the limbs, instead of stockings. Their covering for the feet were of two kinds; one consisting of a pair of soles, fastened with straps, nearly like what we call sandals; the other, a kind of half boot, open from the toe, and laced in front.
Women usually wore white shoes, until Aurelian allowed them to use red ones, forbidding all men, except the royal family, to wear the same color. The fashionable wore them very tight, with high heels, to give them a majestic appearance.
As luxury increased, the ladies became less scrupulous about exposing their persons. Tunics were made shorter, lower in the neck, and with sleeves open from the shoulder to the wrist, to display the beauty of the arm. A good deal of coquetry and grace was manifested in arranging the ample folds which fell from the girdle. The number of tunics increased, until it was customary to wear three. The last invented was a very full robe, called stola; and after this was introduced, the toga was worn only by men and courtesans. The stola had a long train, often embroidered with gold and purple. The upper part was fitted to the form, and being open in front displayed the second tunic. This gave the first idea of bodices, which soon became the most brilliant article of Roman dress, enriched with gold and pearls, and precious stones. Above this dress the ladies wore a very long mantle, fastened by a clasp on the shoulders, from which it flowed loose, supporting its own weight. It commonly rested on the left arm and shoulder, leaving the right arm entirely uncovered, according to the custom of the men. Under the reign of Nero, women began to wear silken robes, instead of linen or woollen; yet more than half a century later, we find Aurelian refusing his empress a mantle of silk, because the threads were sold at their weight in gold. Afterward a kind of transparent stuff became very fashionable. The texture was so delicate that they were obliged to color it before it was woven; and the fabric was so open, that the body might be distinctly seen through it. Varro called them “dresses of glass,” and Jerome loudly declaimed against them.
Roman fans were round, like hand-screens; generally made of feathers, and sometimes with small metallic mirrors inserted above the handle.
At first, garments were generally white; none but people of great dignity wore them of purple; but in process of time, all manner of brilliant and varied colors came into fashion. Women of rank loaded their shoes with embroidery and pearls, and prided themselves on the variety and costliness of their necklaces, bracelets, ear-rings, and rings. Pliny says that even women of the utmost simplicity and modesty durst not venture abroad without diamonds, any more than a consul without the marks of his dignity. “I have seen,” says that writer, “Lollia Paulina, wife of Caligula, load herself with jewels, even after her repudiation; not for any pompous festival, but for simple visits. The value of those she affected to show amounted to forty millions of sesterces, (more than two hundred thousand pounds.) They were not given by the prince, but were part of the effects which descended to her from Marcus Lollius, her uncle.”
The Roman women in primitive times arranged their hair in simple braids, neatly fastened with a broad ribbon, or fillet. But afterward, they wore structures of curls, high as a towering edifice; wigs of false hair, like a helmet; combs made of box inlaid with ivory; golden bodkins loaded with pearls; and fillets embroidered with precious stones.
Those who peculiarly studied decorum, still wore the plain broad fillet of olden times, and arranged their hair in simple, graceful knots at the back of the head. This style was called insigne pudoris, or a sign of modesty.
Light colored hair was most admired. Both men and women dyed it, to make the color more lively; they perfumed it, and applied essences to give it lustre. Sometimes they powdered it with gold dust; which custom Josephus says was practised by the Jews. The hair of the emperor Commodus is said to have been rendered so brilliant by the constant use of gold dust, that when he stood in the sunshine, his head appeared on fire. In the early ages, women never appeared in public without a veil; but in later times this was dispensed with, or used merely in a coquettish manner. The beautiful but infamous Poppæa always partially shaded her face with gauze, to increase the power of her charms.
The Roman ladies enlarged their eyes by stooping over the vapor of burning powder of antimony; and increased their expression by staining the eyelashes, and gently tinting the lid underneath with the same powder. The eyebrows likewise were finely pencilled. Pliny speaks of a wild vine, the leaves and fruit of which were bruised together, to make a cosmetic for the complexion: and Ovid says some women bruised poppies in cold water, and applied it to their cheeks. Martial says Fabula was afraid of the rain, because of the chalk upon her face, and Sabella of the sun, on account of the ceruse with which she was painted. Poppæa made use of an unctuous paint, which formed a crust, that remained some time; it was taken off with milk, and greatly increased the fairness of the complexion. Ladies were accused of keeping the crust for a domestic face, and reserving the beautiful one for seasons when they went abroad. Poppæa, from whom this paint derived its name, had a troop of she-asses following her, even when she went into exile. Juvenal says she would not have dispensed with them if she had gone to the hyperborean pole. Every day they milked five hundred asses, for a bath to maintain the softness and freshness of her complexion.
The Roman ladies were very careful of their teeth. They cleansed them often with little brushes and tooth-picks. Some were silver; but those made of lentisk wood were considered the best. Artificial teeth were sometimes used; for Martial, in one of his epigrams, says to Maximina, “Thou hast only three teeth; and those are of box varnished over.”
Ladies usually went to the bath when they first arose, and from the bath to the toilet. This important business occupied many hours. The attendants were numerous, and each one had a separate department. One combed, curled, and braided the hair; a second arranged the jewels; a third poured the perfumes; and a fourth prepared the cosmetics. Each one had a name expressive of her employment; hence the words ornatrices, cosmetæ, &c. Some, who were called parasitæ, were merely required to look on, and give advice; those who were the best skilled in flattery were, of course, the greatest favorites. If a curl was misplaced, or a color unbecoming, the waiting maids were abused for the fault. Juvenal, speaking to one of these women, says, “Of what crime is that unhappy girl guilty, because your nose displeases you?”
It was not surprising that such a state of things should exist among women, when the men wore golden soles to their shoes, plucked out the hairs of the beard one by one, and applied bread dipped in milk to the face, to freshen the complexion.
Still, in all periods of Roman history, there were bright examples of female excellence. When Coriolanus, in revenge for ungrateful treatment, threatened to destroy Rome with an invading army, the remonstrances and proposals of the nobility and senate had no effect on his stubborn pride. The Roman matrons persuaded his mother Veturia, and his wife Vergilia, to go to his camp, and try their influence in appeasing his resentment. The meeting between Coriolanus and his family was extremely affecting. For a while he remained inflexible; but the entreaties of a mother and a wife finally prevailed over his stern and vindictive resolutions. The senate decreed that Veturia and Vergilia should receive any favor they thought proper to ask. They merely begged permission to build a temple to the Fortunes of Women, at their own expense. The senate immediately ordered that it should be erected on the very spot where Coriolanus had been persuaded to save Rome. They likewise decreed them public thanks; ordered the men to give place to them upon all occasions; and permitted the Roman ladies to add another ornament to their head-dress!!
Veturia was made priestess of the new temple, into which no woman who had married a second husband was allowed to enter.
Portia, the daughter of Cato and wife of Brutus, was remarkable for her prudence, philosophy, and domestic virtues. She wounded herself severely, and endured the pain in silence, to convince her husband that she had sufficient courage to be intrusted with his most dangerous secrets. Brutus admired her fortitude, and no longer concealed from her his intended conspiracy against Cæsar. On the day when she knew the assassination was to take place, she fainted away with excess of anxiety; but she faithfully kept the secret that had been intrusted to her. When she parted from Brutus, after the death of Cæsar, a picture of Hector and Andromache, that was hanging on the wall, brought tears to her eyes. A friend of Brutus, who was present, repeated the address of the Trojan princess:
“Be careful, Hector! for with thee my all,
My father, mother, brother, husband, fall.”
Brutus replied, smiling, “I must not answer Portia in the words of Hector, ‘Mind your wheel, and to your maids give law;’ for in courage, activity, and concern for her country’s freedom, she is inferior to none of us; though the weakness of her frame does not always second the strength of her mind.” A false rumor having prevailed that Brutus was dead, Portia resolved not to survive him. Her friends, aware of her purpose, placed every weapon beyond her reach; but she defeated their kindness by swallowing burning coals.
The emperor Augustus is said to have seldom worn any domestic robes that were not woven by his wife, his sister, his daughters, or his nieces. His sister Octavia was celebrated for her beauty and her virtues. When her husband, Mark Antony, deserted her for the sake of Cleopatra, she went to Athens to meet him, in hopes of withdrawing him from this disgraceful amour; but she was secretly rebuked, and entirely banished from his presence. Augustus highly resented this affront to a beloved sister, but she gently endeavored to pacify him, and made all possible excuses for Antony. When she heard of her husband’s death, she took all his children into her house, and treated them with the utmost tenderness. She gave Virgil ten thousand sesterces for every line of his encomium upon her excellent and darling son Marcellus. The poet was requested to repeat these verses in the presence of Augustus and his sister. Octavia burst into tears as soon as he began; but when he mentioned Tu Marcellus eris, she swooned away. She was supposed to have died of melancholy, occasioned by her son’s death. Augustus himself pronounced her funeral oration, and the Roman people evinced their respect for her character by wishing to pay her divine honors.
Agrippina, the granddaughter of Augustus, was a model of purity in the midst of surrounding corruption. She accompanied her husband Germanicus into Germany, shared in all his toils and dangers, and attached herself to him with the most devoted affection. She often appeared at the head of the troops, appeasing tumults, and encouraging bravery. Tiberius, jealous of virtues that reflected so much dishonor on his own licentious court, entered into machinations against them. Germanicus was poisoned, and Agrippina exiled and treated with the utmost indignity. Despairing of redress, she refused all sustenance, and died.
Arria, the wife of Pætus, not being allowed to accompany her husband to Rome, when he was carried thither to be tried for conspiracy against the government, followed the vessel in a fisherman’s bark hired for the occasion. She exerted every means to save his life; and when she found all her efforts unavailing, she advised him to avoid the disgrace and torture that awaited him, by voluntary death. Seeing that he hesitated, she plunged the dagger into her own heart, and gave it to him with a smile, saying, “It gives me no pain, my Pætus.” In judging of these examples, we must remember that the Romans, in their sternness and stoicism, regarded suicide as a virtue.
Eponina, the wife of Sabinus, lived with her husband concealed in a cave, for several years, rather than desert him at a time of disgrace and danger, the consequence of unsuccessful rebellion. Their retreat was at length discovered; and neither her tears, nor the innocent beauty of two little twins born in the cavern, could soften the heart of Vespasian. The faithful wife was condemned to die with her husband.
Valerius Maximus tells of an illustrious lady, whose mother being condemned to die by famine, the daughter obtained access to her prison, and nourished her with her own milk. When this was discovered, the criminal was pardoned; both mother and daughter were maintained at the public expense; and a temple to Filial Piety was erected near the prison.
Pliny, who lived as late as the time of Trajan, warmly eulogizes the talents and domestic virtues of his wife. He says: “Her taste for literature is inspired by tenderness for me. When I am to speak in public, she places herself as near me as possible, under the cover of her veil, and listens with delight to the praises bestowed upon me. She sings my verses, and untaught adapts them to the lute; love is her only instructer.”
Under the emperors, it was more easy to find women distinguished for talent than for virtue. Julia, the wife of Septimus Severus, was famous for her genius and learning, and for the generous patronage she bestowed on literature. Julia Mammæa, the mother of Alexander Severus, had a mind equally cultivated, with far greater purity of character than her namesake. She educated her son for the throne in a manner so judicious, that his integrity, virtue, and firmness might have effectually checked the tide of corruption, had he not met with an untimely fate.
As learning became fashionable, many acquired it merely for display. Juvenal, speaking of pedantic ladies, says: “They fall on the praises of Virgil, and weigh his merits in the same balance with Homer; they find excuses for Dido’s having stabbed herself, and determine of the beautiful and the sovereign good.”
The Roman women seem to have been less iron-hearted than the Spartans. When the Romans were defeated by Hannibal, women waited at the gates of the city, for news of the returning army. One, who had given up her son for dead, died at the sight of him; and another, having been told that her son was slain, died when the report was contradicted.
The Roman women strongly resembled the Spartans in the deep and active interest they took in public affairs. Upon the death of Brutus, they all clad themselves in deep mourning. In the time of Brennus, they gave all their golden ornaments to ransom the city from the Gauls. In reward for this generosity, the senate ordained that they should be allowed to ride in chariots at the public games, and that funeral orations should thenceforth be pronounced for them, as well as for distinguished men.
After the fatal battle of Cannæ, the women again consecrated all their ornaments to the service of the state. But when the triumvirs attempted to tax them for the expenses of carrying on a civil war, they tried various means to resist the innovation. At last, they chose Hortensia for their speaker, and went in a body to the market-place, to expostulate with the magistrates. The triumvirs, offended at their boldness, wished to drive them away; but the populace grew so tumultuous, that it was deemed prudent to give the women a hearing. Hortensia spoke as follows: “The unhappy women you see here pleading for justice, would never have presumed to appear in this place, had they not first made use of all other means their natural modesty could suggest. Yet the loss of our fathers, brothers, husbands, and children, may sufficiently excuse us; especially when their unhappy deaths are made a pretence for our further misfortunes. You say they had offended you—but what have we women done, that we must be impoverished? Empire, dignities, and honors are not for us; why then should we contribute to a war, in which we can have no manner of interest? Our mothers did indeed assist the republic in the hour of her utmost need; but they were not constrained to sell their houses and lands for that purpose; theirs was the voluntary offering of generosity. If the Gauls or the Parthians were encamped on the banks of the Tiber, you would find us no less zealous in the defence of our country than our mothers were before us; but we are resolved that we will not be connected with civil war. Neither Marius, nor Cæsar, nor Pompey, nor even Sylla himself, who first set up tyranny in Rome, ever thought of compelling us to take part in domestic troubles. Yet you assume the glorious title of reformers of the state! a title which will turn to your eternal infamy, if, without the least regard to the laws of equity, you persist in plundering the lives and fortunes of those who have given you no just cause of offence.”
In consequence of this spirited and eloquent speech, the number of women taxed was reduced from fourteen hundred to four hundred.
When the deification of emperors and heroes became fashionable at Rome, women soon had their statues placed in the temples, and incense burned before them; and these honors, instead of being the reward of virtue, were often bestowed merely to please the corrupt and the powerful. Poppæa, the wife of Nero, a most thoroughly vicious woman, had divine honors paid to her after death; the emperor himself pronounced her eulogium in the rostrum; and more perfumes were burned at her funeral, than Arabia Felix produced in a year.
Messalina, the profligate wife of Claudius, governed the emperor without control. She appeared with him in the senate, placed herself by him on the same tribunal in all public ceremonies, gave audience with him to princes and ambassadors, and did not even abandon him in the courts of justice.
Heliogabalus made his mother and grandmother his colleagues on the throne, and placed them at the head of a female senate, which he instituted to regulate all matters of dress and fashion; this, however, lasted but a short time. Extravagance, both in dress and style of living, went on increasing to such a degree that the details are almost incredible. During the Carthagenian war, when Rome was in great distress, an effort was made to check the growth of this evil, by a law, which ordained that no woman should wear more than half an ounce of gold, have party-colored garments, or be carried to any place within a mile’s distance, unless it was to celebrate some sacred festivals or solemnities. This created much discontent; and eighteen years after, the ladies petitioned to have it repealed. Cato strongly opposed it, and satirized the women for appearing in public to solicit votes; but the tribune Valerius, who presented the petition, urged their cause so eloquently, that the law was abrogated.
When the Greek custom was introduced of reclining full length upon their couches, while they ate their meals, the ladies for a long time continued to sit upon benches, because they considered the new mode inconsistent with modesty; but during the reign of the emperors, they began to imitate the men in this particular. In the early ages they were forbidden the use of wine; their relations were allowed to salute them, as they entered the house, in order to discover whether they had drunk it; and in that case their husbands or parents had a right to punish them. But in later times, they indulged themselves without restraint. Seneca says: “Women pique themselves upon carrying excess in wine as far as the most robust men; like them they pass whole nights at table, and holding a cup filled to the brim, they glory in defying, and even in surpassing them.”
The Romans were in the habit of drinking their crowns; that is to say, the wine in which they had been dipped. Cleopatra, perceiving that Antony was jealous she had designs upon his life, diverted herself with his precautions. At one of their splendid feasts she wore upon her head a crown of flowers, the extremities of which had been poisoned. Antony, being invited to drink the crowns, readily consented; but Cleopatra snatched the cup from his lips, saying, “The garland was poisoned. If I could live without you, I could easily find means for your destruction.”
A love for exciting amusements kept pace with other forms of dissipation. Women, not content with music and dancing, and the entertainments of the theatre, began to delight in horse-races, and the contests of wild beasts and gladiators, during which scenes of cruelty occurred too shocking to be described. Sometimes they fought on the arena with men, at the command of the despotic emperors. The celebration of the Bacchanalian mysteries, in which women took an active part, were a continuation of the most indecent and horrid crimes. In many instances they danced on the stage entirely without clothing, and enjoyed the luxury of public baths promiscuously with the men, totally disregarding the modest regulations of former times.
Roman husbands, from the earliest times, had the power of divorcing their wives whenever they pleased; and afterward the laws were equalized to such a degree, that either party had liberty to demand divorce. If the wife was blameless, she received all her dowry and goods; if culpable, the husband was allowed to retain a sixth part for each child; if she had been unfaithful to him, he kept all the dowry and marriage-presents, even if he had no children by her. Where there was a family, each of the parties settled a proportionable part of their fortune.
Notwithstanding the facility of divorce, five hundred and twenty-one years elapsed without an instance of it in Rome. Carvilius Ruga was the first one who repudiated his wife. He had great affection for her, and parted from her merely because she brought him no children. Notwithstanding this excuse, the Roman citizens were very indignant at the proceeding. But divorces gradually became frequent, and were made upon the slightest pretexts. When Paulus Æmilius repudiated Papiria, his friends said to him, “Is she not wise? Is she not fair? Is she not the mother of fine children?” In reply, he pointed to his shoe, and said, “Is it not fine? Is it not well made? Yet none of you know where it pinches me.” Sulpicius Gallus turned away his wife because she appeared bare-headed in public. Sempronius Sophus separated from his, because she had whispered to a freed-woman. Antistius Vetus did the same because his wife went to some public place of amusement without his knowledge. Cicero separated from Terentia on account of her extravagance and imperious temper; he espoused Publilia, a young heiress, who had been his ward; but he repudiated her for harsh treatment to his daughter Tullia. Cato gave up his wife Martia, by whom he had had several children, that Hortensius might marry her; and when some time after Hortensius died, and left her to inherit his great wealth, to the prejudice of his own son, Cato retook her. Some men married women of tarnished reputation, on purpose to find opportunity to divorce them and retain their dowry.
Polygamy was at no period allowed; and even a plurality of mistresses was prohibited. Mark Antony gave great offence to the Romans by living with Cleopatra during the lifetime of Octavia.
Papirius was accustomed to attend his father to the senate before he assumed the manly robe; and his mother one day inquired what had been debated there. The lad replied, a decree had been passed that every man should be allowed to have two wives. The news spread rapidly; and the next day many women presented themselves to demand that every woman might be allowed two husbands. The senators, surprised at such a strange proposition, did not know how to account for it, until young Papirius explained the mystery. They commended his prudence in thus evading female curiosity, and ordained that no young person, himself excepted, should attend the debates of the senate.
As corruption increased, the women made as bad use of divorce as the men. Seneca says there were some who no longer reckoned the years by the consuls, but by the number of their husbands. St. Jerome speaks with indignation of a man in his time who had buried twenty wives, and of a woman who had buried twenty-two husbands. When Severus ascended the throne, he found no less than three thousand prosecutions against faithless wives. Women of the highest rank unblushingly proclaimed their own licentiousness, and laughed at the appearance of modesty. A long train of cruel and disgusting crimes followed this utter abandonment of principle. At one time there was a general conspiracy to murder all husbands, in order that the last appearance of restraint might be thrown aside. Voluptas had a temple, and was worshipped as a beautiful woman, seated on a throne, and treading virtue beneath her feet.
Augustus, perceiving that facility of divorce, far from tending to promote happiness, only increased discontent, endeavored to restrain it by penalties. He likewise made the laws more severe with regard to infidelity. The father of a faithless wife might put her to death; and if the husband killed her and her gallant, he was not punished by the laws. Fines and banishment were likewise frequently resorted to.
The highest possible encouragement was given to matrimony. When the people were numbered, the censors asked each citizen, “Upon your faith, have you a wife?” and those who had none were subject to a fine. In the tribunals, those who came to make oath were asked, “Upon your faith, have you a horse? Have you a wife?” and unless they could answer these questions in the affirmative, they were not allowed to give testimony. Those who lived in celibacy could not succeed to an inheritance, or legacy, except of their nearest relations, unless they married within one hundred days after the death of the testator. Married men were preferred to all public employments; and the prescribed age was dispensed with in their favor, by taking off as many years as they had legitimate children. They had distinguished places at the theatre and the games, were exempted from guardianships, and other burthensome offices.
But when the condition of the people required laws like these, it was useless to make them. Mere external rewards are as feeble a barrier against the tumult of the passions, as a bar of sand against a rushing stream. The Roman knights loudly demanded that the edicts should be revoked; and many, to avoid the penalties, went through the form of marriage with mere infants. Augustus, to prevent this fraud, forbade any one to contract a girl that was not at least ten years old, that the wedding might be celebrated two years after. Metellus, the censor, said to the people, “If it were possible for us to do without wives, we should escape a very great evil; but it is ordained that we cannot live very happily either with them or without them.”
Such was the diseased state of society, when Christianity came in with its blessed influence, to purify the manners, and give the soul its proper empire over the senses. Many women of the noblest and wealthiest families, surrounded by the seductive allurements of worldly pleasure, renounced them all, for the sake of the strength and consolation they found in the words of Jesus. Undismayed by severe edicts against the new religion, they appeared before the magistrates, and by pronouncing the simple words, “I am a Christian,” calmly resigned themselves to imprisonment, ignominy, and death. Taught by the maxims of the Gospel that it was a duty to love and comfort each other, as members of the same family, they devoted their lives to the relief of the sick, the aged, and the destitute. Beautiful ladies, accustomed to all the luxurious appendages of wealth, might be seen in the huts of poverty, and the cells of disease, performing in the kindest manner the duties of a careful nurse.
In the worst stages of human society, there will ever be seven thousand of Israel who do not bow the knee to Baal; and such a remnant existed in Rome. The graceful form of heathen mythology had some degree of protecting life within it, so long as it was sincerely reverenced; but the vital spark, that at best had glimmered but faintly, was now entirely extinguished, and the beautiful form was crumbling in corruption and decay. The heart, oppressed with a sense of weakness and destitution, called upon the understanding for aid, and received only the lonely echo of its own wants. At such a moment, Christianity was embraced with fervor; and the soul, enraptured with glimpses of its heavenly home, forgot that the narrow pathway lay amid worldly duties, and worldly temptations.
The relation of the sexes to each other had become so gross in its manifested forms, that it was difficult to perceive the pure conservative principle in its inward essence. Hence, though marriage was sanctioned, and solemnized by the most sacred forms, it was regarded as a necessary concession to human weakness, and perpetual celibacy was considered a sublime virtue. This feeling gave rise to the retirement of the cloister, and to solitary hermitages in the midst of the desert. St. Jerome is perhaps the most eloquent advocate of this ideal purity. His writings are full of eulogiums upon Paula, her daughter Eustochium, and other Roman women, who embraced Christianity, and spent whole days and nights in the study of the Scriptures.
Women were peculiarly susceptible to the influence of doctrines whose very essence is gentleness and love. Among the Jews, the number of believing women had been greater than converted men; the same was true of the Romans; and it is an undoubted fact that most nations were brought into Christianity by the influence of a believing queen. By such means the light of the Gospel gradually spread through France, England, part of Germany, Bavaria, Hungary, Bohemia, Lithuania, Poland, and Russia.
The northern nations bore a general resemblance to each other. War and hunting were considered the only honorable occupations for men, and all other employments were left to women and slaves. Even the Visigoths, on the coasts of Spain, left their fields and flocks to the care of women. They had annual meetings, in which those who had shown most skill and industry in agriculture, received public applause. They were bound by law not to give a wife more than the tenth part of their substance.
The Scandinavian women often accompanied the men in plundering excursions, and had all the drudgery to perform. The wives of the ancient Franks were inseparable from their husbands. They lived with them in the camp, where the marriages of their daughters were celebrated by the soldiers, with Scythian, and other warlike dances. A man was allowed but one wife, and was rigorously punished if he left her to marry another.
They could put their wives to death for infidelity; and if they happened to kill them without justifiable cause, in a moment of anger, the law punished them only by a temporary prohibition to bear arms.
The ancient German women could not inherit the estates of their fathers; but by subsequent laws they were permitted to succeed after males of the same degree of kindred.
Women of the northern nations rarely ate and drank with their husbands, but waited upon them at their meals, and afterward shared what was left, with the children. This custom could not have originated in the habit of regarding women as inferior beings; for the whole history of the north proves the existence of an entirely opposite sentiment. It was probably owing, in part, to the circumstance that women were too busy in cooking the food, to wish to eat at the same time with the men; and partly, perhaps, to the fact that these feasts were generally drunken carousals.
The eastern nations imagine the joys of heaven to consist principally in voluptuous love; but northern tribes seem to have believed that they chiefly consisted in drinking. In the Koran, the dying hero is assured that a troop of houries, beautiful as the day, will welcome him with kisses, and lead him to fragrant bowers; but according to the Edda,[2] a crowd of lovely maidens wait on heroes in the halls of Odin, to fill their cups as fast as they can empty them.
In a state of society so turbulent as that we are describing, men had little leisure, and less inclination, for the sciences; women, having better opportunities for observation and experience in common things, acquired great knowledge of simple remedies, and were in fact the only physicians. Their usefulness, virtue, and decorum, procured them an uncommon degree of respect. The institution of marriage was regarded with the utmost reverence, and second marriages were forbidden. Tacitus says: “The strictest regard to virtue characterizes the Germans, and deserves our highest applause. Vice is not made the subject of mirth and raillery, nor is fashion pleaded as an excuse for being corrupt, or for corrupting others. Good customs and manners avail more among these barbarous people, than good laws among such as are more refined. It is a great incitement to courage, that in battle their separate troops, or columns, are not arranged promiscuously, as chance directs, but consist of one united clan, with its relatives. Their dearest pledges are placed in the vicinity, whence may be heard the cries of their women, and the wailing of infants, whom each one accounts the most sacred witnesses and dearest eulogists of his valor. The wounded repair to their wives and mothers, who do not hesitate to number their wounds, and suck the blood that flows from them. Women carry refreshments to those engaged in the contest, and encourage them by exhortations. It is said that armies, when about to give way, have renewed the struggle, moved by the earnest entreaties of the women, for whose sake they dreaded captivity much more than their own. Those German states which were induced to number noble damsels among their hostages, were much more effectually bound to obedience, than those whose hostages consisted only of men. Indeed they deem that something sacred, and capable of prophecy, resides within the female breast; nor do they scorn the advice of women, or neglect their responses.”
The Goths were likewise remarkable for purity of manners. Their laws punished with heavy fines the most trifling departure from scrupulous respect toward women. After the conquest of Rome, they were accustomed to say: “Though we punish profligacy in our own countrymen, we pardon it in the Romans; because they are by nature and education weak, and incapable of reaching to our sublimity of virtue.”
Once, when a civil war arose in ancient Gaul, the women rushed into the midst of the battle, and persuaded the combatants to be reconciled to each other. From that time, the Gauls admitted women to their councils of war, and such disputes as arose between them and their allies were settled by female negotiation. Thus in a treaty with Hannibal, it was stipulated that should any complaints be made against the Carthagenians, it should be settled by their general; but in case of any complaints against the Gauls, it should be referred to their women.
On account of the confusion at times attendant upon the best regulated camp, the strictest laws were made for the protection of northern women, who universally followed the army. The operations of the soldiers were from time to time settled in a council, of which their wives formed a part; and when in danger of defeat, they feared their dishonor more than the swords of the enemy. If a man occasioned a woman the loss of her fair fame, he was obliged to marry her, if she were his equal in rank; if not, he must divide his fortune with her; and if he would not comply with these conditions, he was condemned to death.
The ancient Britons long submitted patiently to the outrageous oppression of the Romans; but when the tyrants scourged their queen Boadicea, and loaded her daughters with insult and abuse, they fought with a desperate fury, that seemed resolved on freedom or extermination. The women themselves joined the army by thousands, and contended with the utmost bravery. “They cared not for the loss of their own lives,” says Holinshed, “so they might die avenged.” The Britons had priests called druids, among whom were women held in the highest veneration.
Female deities are found in the mythology of the north. The Scythians adored Apia, and the Scandinavians Frigga, the consort of Odin, in whose temples sacred fire was kept burning, watched by virgin prophetesses.
In Germany women belonged to the priesthood, and inherited the regal dignity. They often administered the government with a degree of ability that excited the admiration of neighboring nations. The greatest heroes were willing to fight under their banners, and be regulated by their councils; for they imagined them to be guided by oracular wisdom, derived from sources more than human.
Nothing could exceed the desperation of northern women in times of defeat. Proud and jealous of their honor, they were willing to suffer any thing to avoid the indignities that awaited female captives in those days. When the troops of Marius pursued the Ambrones, the women met them with swords and axes, and slaughtered the fugitives as well as their pursuers; for they deemed that no soldier who turned his back upon an enemy ought to survive his shame. They laid hold of the Roman shields, caught at the swords with their naked hands, and suffered themselves to be hacked and hewed to pieces, rather than give up one inch of ground.
When the Romans, a short time after this, penetrated to the camp of the Cimbri, a shocking spectacle presented itself. The women, standing in mourning beside the carriages, killed every one that fled, even their own fathers, brothers, husbands, and sons. They strangled their children, threw them under the horses’ feet, and killed themselves. One was seen slung from the top of a wagon, with a child hanging at each foot. Notwithstanding these efforts to destroy themselves, many were taken prisoners. The female captives earnestly begged to be placed among the vestal virgins, in hopes that a vow of perpetual purity would afford protection to their persons; but the profligate Romans were unworthy to be the masters of such noble-minded women, and they sought refuge in death.
On warlike expeditions, the northern nations were generally accompanied by hoary-headed prophetesses, clothed in long white robes of linen. In their divination they observed the moon, and paid particular attention to the flowing and murmuring of streams. They likewise believed greatly in the efficacy of philtres and love potions.
Powerful northern nobles generally had some venerable sibyl, who directed their councils. Thorbiorga, a Danish enchantress, was consulted by earl Thorchil concerning a famine and pestilence that afflicted Denmark. “A particular seat was prepared for the prophetess, raised some steps above the other seats, and covered with a cushion stuffed with hens’ feathers. She was dressed in a gown of green cloth, buttoned from top to bottom, had a string of glass beads about her neck, and her head covered with the skin of a black lamb, lined with the skin of a white cat; her shoes were of calf’s skin, with the hair on it, tied with thongs, and fastened with brass buttons; her gloves were of white cat’s skin, with the hair inward; she wore a Hunlandic girdle, at which hung a bag containing her magical instruments; and she supported her feeble limbs on a staff adorned with many knobs of brass. As soon as she entered, the whole company rose and saluted her in the most respectful manner. Earl Thorchil advanced, and led her to the seat prepared for her. At supper she ate only a pottage of goat’s milk, and a dish consisting of the hearts of various animals. When asked at what time she would please to tell the things they desired to know, she replied that she would satisfy them fully the next day. Accordingly she put her implements of divination in proper order, and commanded a maiden, named Godreda, to sing the magical song called Wardlokur; which she did with so clear and sweet a voice, that the whole company were ravished with her music; and the prophetess cried out, ‘Now I know many things, which I did not know before! This famine and sickness will soon fly away, and plenty will return next season.’ Then each of the company asked her what they pleased, and she told them all they desired to know.”
The women of the northern nations sometimes fastened their hair in simple knots on the top of the head, but they generally allowed it to flow carelessly over their shoulders. A linen garment without sleeves, with a cloak made of the skins of such animals as their husbands killed in hunting, constituted their best finery. They were generally handsome, with large clear blue eyes, fair complexions, regular features, and majestic forms. Their stately beauty became famous in the songs of their bards. Among these warlike tribes the passion of love was mingled with sentiment, not untinged by veneration. The hero would encounter any dangers, to find favor in the eyes of her he loved, and no success, however brilliant, could compensate for her indifference. Battles were often a number of separate duels fought between those who had rival claims to some fair lady; and in this way the sword often decided marriage and inheritance.
When these barbarians subdued Rome, Christianity passed from the conquered to the conquerors; and being ingrafted on their previous habits, produced that romantic combination of love, religion, and war, that characterized the middle ages.
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[1] A small coin, about the value of a penny.
[2] The sacred book of the Scandinavians. text goes here
